I am going to be using a standard 360KB floppy disk as an example here. A standard MS-DOS format command formats a 360KB floppy disk with 40 cylinders, 9 sectors per cylinder and 512 bytes per sector.

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I distinguish between cylinders, which use both sides of the disk, from tracks, which only use one side of the disk. Thus you get a total disk size of 368,640 bytes.

However, that is the space available for data bytes and a standard disk dump just dumps the data sectors. In between the data there is extra data allowing the disk drive to find the right data. Each sector has a Sector ID field and Sector Data field.

Between the Sector ID field and the Sector Data field are two kinds of bytes. Before the Sector ID field there will be Gap bytes. These Gap bytes, typically hex 4E, are used to compensate between slight differences between the drive that originally wrote the disk and the drive that is currently writing the disk. Without some tolerance, the Sector fields may overwrite each other. After the Gap bytes come the Sync bytes, which help tell the drive that there will be a Sector ID field or a Sector Data fields coming up next. Sync bytes follow a pattern of 00s followed by three A1s. This area is missing the normal clocks and does not follow proper MFM encoding rules so the drive controller can figure out that this is not real data and the real data is coming up.

The A1s are also called the Sync mark. Torrent copytrans crack code filmora. Gap bytes and Sync bytes precede both the Sector ID field and the Sector Data field. The only sector size the standard DOS FORMAT command will use is a 512 byte sector size.

This applies to all standard 5.25' and 3.5' disks and drives, whether double density (160KB, 180KB, 320KB, 360KB & 720KB), high density (1.2MB and 1.44MB) or extra high density (2.88MB). You can use third party utilities to format disks with other sector sizes, but DOS will not read them. Note that a track on a 360KB disk cannot really fit 8192 data bytes. I have never come across a disk that has had more than 10 x 512 byte sectors. Thus the Frequency Modulation (FM) method was first used. In this method, a 0 bit is encoded by a flux reversal followed by a no flux reversal, and a 1 bit is encoded by two flux reversals.

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Thus for there will be at least one flux reversal for every two pulses of the clock. This method is used in the earliest floppy disk controllers, but for home computers only the Atari 8-bit drives used it. These disk drives were called single density. The IBM PC floppy disk controllers that use an NEC uDP765 or 100% compatible like the Intel 8272 support FM encoding.

Later floppy disk controllers lose that functionality. This system was easy to implement, but not very efficient. The next improvement was the Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM) method. In this method, a 0 bit preceded by a 0 bit would be encoded by flux reversal then no flux reversal. A 0 bit preceded by a 1 bit would be two clocks of no flux reversal. A 1 bit would be no flux reversal followed by a flux reversal. On average this only requires half the flux reversals per bit as in the FM scheme.